Only a few years after the reign of Queen Mary I, there appeared in England a certain Book of Martyrs, authored by John Foxe. Therein are narrated not only the tales of those put to death for the protestant faith in the preceding few decades, but also the lives and deaths of many notable figures in whom both Protestantism and Christianity itself finds its origins. What, though, is its significance as a historical source, especially as it relates to the reformation in England? The Book of Martyrs disseminated around England rather quickly following its publication (Tracy 199-200), thus the question does not much pertain to the extent of its influence; rather, more important is what exactly that influence was and what exactly that influence is. More precisely, there exist certain matters that are essential to answering this inquiry. First, there is the issue of objective reliability, which concerns itself with source’s factual merit as a historical document. Second, there is the issue of subjective interpretation, which concerns itself with the information that can be drawn from the source retrospectively. The former idea of objective reliability can be subdivided into a consideration of the methods by which these accounts were gathered and a consideration of plain information against narrative detail. The latter idea of subjective interpretation most significantly gives a glimpse into English protestant thought at the time, illustrated though the emphasis on particular doctrines and on the politics that correlate directly to the state of the church at a given time. Through examination of these matters, it should be shown that Foxe’s Book of Martyrs is of indispensable value for an understanding the reformation in England.
The Book of Martyrs is not apt to explain from whence its information came, calling into question the veracity of its content, and rightly so; however, Foxe does not leave his readers to blindly suppose his information is valid, or at least, that it is not utter fiction. Scattered about are mentions of his methods in acquiring these tales, as well as copious quotations of often lengthy letters and other such documents concerning the martyrs. An instance of the former occurs in reference to the burning a certain man, wherein Foxe says, “His name was called Stile, as is credibly reported unto us by a worthy and ancient knight, named Sir Robert Outred, who was the same time present himself at his burning” (323). Though clearly attempting to draw from the apparent authority of his source, this passing note is of vast importance, for here Foxe makes a direct statement regarding his investigations in these matters, thus making perfectly clear that he depended upon the accounts of those present at the events described in order to assemble his own versions thereof. Though while not certifying every detail of the stories to be true, it brings the author a bit closer to the events, hearing of them secondhand rather than, say, embellishing a general knowledge of them. Of course, this method was not his one and only, and it is certainly not the most reliable or historically compelling.
As stated, Foxe very frequently utilized earlier sources pertaining directly to the martyr at hand to communicate that individual’s story. One of the most fascinating uses of such a document occurs when Foxe allows Anne Askew to tell of her own experience leading up to her execution itself, prefacing her own account only by stating, “Here follow the examinations of Anne Askew, according as she wrote them with her own hand, and the instant desire of certain faithful men and women” (Foxe 329). Now the reader finds that the Book of Martyrs is not merely a collection of recounted events, but a trove of firsthand descriptions and documents from the time of the events they describe. Another such example would be the reproduction of the articles against Nicholas Ridley and Hugh Latimer (Foxe 297), the official nature of which being further indicative of Foxe’s active pursuit of factual information from which to draw his accounts. The perpetual presence of these citations juxtaposed against the presence of simple secondhand reports, though both are evidence of general historical reliability, provides an intriguing disparity between plain information and narrative detail.
Foxe’s Book of Martyrs is replete with facts, ranging from the quotations mentioned before to a thorough presentation of the dates on which most of the notable events described took place. The narrative presentation of the accounts; however, place these among details that are quite simply impossible to verify. An excellent exhibition of this point is provided in the account of Dr. Rowland Taylor, when the same was called before the Bishop of Winchester, at that time Stephen Gardiner, who “according to his custom, reviled [Dr. Taylor], calling him knave, traitor, heretic, with many other villainous reproaches; all which Dr. Taylor heard patiently” (Foxe 220). Contained herein is a prevalent theme recurrent throughout the book, the discord of Roman Catholic ignorance and wickedness against Protestant wisdom and heroism. It goes without saying that this is the result of the protestant purposes behind the writing, but what information does it objectively give the reader? Narrativity aside, it most basically communicates that Taylor was interrogated by Stephen Gardiner, the Bishop of Winchester. In this way objective information can be drawn from these narrative accounts. It matters very little whether Taylor or the bishop used exactly the words that Foxe recalls; those are of much greater importance for reading into the mindset of Foxe and his kind than for seeing actual events precisely as they occurred. One must not ask what exactly happened at the events described, but what the events meant to the Protestants of the English reformation.
This point is also illustrated in a great many of the accounts of the executions themselves, particularly that of John Hooper. After detailing the difficulty it apparently required to successfully burn him to death, Foxe begins his conclusion with the statement, “Thus was he three quarters of an hour or more in the fire. Even as a lamb, patiently he abode the extremity thereof, neither moving forwards, backwards, nor to any side: but he died as quietly as a child in his bed” (213). Three major aspects of this history are very prevalent in this particular bit of text. First, there is the statement of objective information; that Hooper was burned, and it evidently took an abnormally long time. Second, there is narrative detail; that Hooper, according to Foxe, faced the fire with seemingly unnatural tranquility. Third, there is the advancement of the protestant position; that by the aforesaid means Hooper was portrayed in a purely heroic light. What does this all together signify? Objective statements can of course be checked against other sources, this merely being one source from the period. In this sense, it provides just another record of the time. Narrative details are the vehicle by which the purpose is conveyed, once again, how the protestant ideals of the time reveals itself, felt clearly through the clear advancement of said ideals. Thus are set forth both the origins and the significance of the general types of information presented in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Historically speaking, though, this begs the question of what specifically can be drawn from this information. What history exactly is discernable, transcendent of history explicitly presented?
As far as the subjective interpretation of the text goes, in order to exemplify the Book of Martyrs’ usefulness as a source, the issues of doctrine and politics that it exposes shall be considered. These were hardly separable in the world of the English reformation: “…Henry VIII’s separation of the Church of England from the Catholic Church (1534-1547), Edward VI’s establishment of Protestantism (1547-1553), the reestablishment of Catholicism under Mary Tudor (1553-1558), the reestablishment of Protestantism under Elizabeth I (1558-1603)…” (Tracy 193). Obviously, the faith of the monarch and his or her cohorts was an extraordinarily weighty matter. The simple mention of the name of “…the most innocent and holy King of blessed memory, Edward the Sixth,” after whose reign “the papists violently overthrew the true doctrine of the Gospel” (Foxe 216), referencing the reign of Mary I, makes perfectly clear the contemporary perception of this link between doctrine and politics. The disparity between the respective reigns of Edward and Mary is by far the clearest indicator of the authority of the monarch even in affairs of religion, and Foxe plainly shows his views to that end. Whosoever held political power also held power over doctrine, and doctrine drove many a politic of the powerful.
Furthermore, the ordeal surrounding Lady Jane Grey’s brief ascension to the throne could scarcely better exhibit this very point, as Foxe notes, “King Edward…knowing his sister Mary was wholly wedded to popish religion, bequeathed the succession to the Lady Jane…[but] it was otherwise in the testament of King Henry…[who] had sworn to the succession of Mary” (371-372). Thus doctrinally minded individuals on both sides sought to turn the political climate to their favor. Foxe herein displays not only his own perception of the aforesaid power of the state over the treatment of doctrine, but also he shows the keen awareness thereof among those with authority. Though at that point merely giving an account of the circumstances leading to the beheading of Lady Jane, Foxe does better to voice the protestant position on the same matters and thereby allowing a glimpse beyond the mere fact into the motives of that faction. This perhaps represents the Book of Martyrs’ greatest value as an exhibition of how these Protestants viewed history. By both these examples the reader gains not from anything intentionally presented in the text beyond simple historical record, but from a reflection on the historical context thereof.
Also transcendent of Foxe’s explicit communication is the doctrine itself, the doctrine for which these martyrs were apparently willing to die. Regardless of any historical accuracy at all in the accounts, Foxe has at least provided a thorough presentation of the prevalent doctrinal disputes during the English reformation, all of them naturally deviations from the Roman Catholic tradition, altogether akin to protestant doctrines elsewhere. Which beliefs and behaviors, though, seem to have attracted the distaste of hostile authorities, and which ones does Foxe claim compelled the martyrs to die? In the case of Ridley and Latimer, Foxe records the articles against them to consist of the beliefs that “‘the true and natural body of Christ…is not really present in the sacrament of the altar…[in which] remaineth still the substance of bread and wine…[and] that in the mass is no propitiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead’” (297). Denial of the mass and its associated sacraments, then, seem to have been important, to place them so prominently among the charges against such prominent figures as Ridley and Latimer. Less famously, though, there exists the strikingly similar dispute around Dr. Rowland Taylor, in whose account Foxe states that, “the popish mass was again set up with battle array, with swords and bucklers, with violence and tyranny” (218), in describing a scene in which Taylor was barred from his church and a priest had taken over, guarded by armed men. Eventually, this situation surrounding the mass would of course be his undoing, Foxe once again leveling a severe attack against such popery, demonstrating even more the magnitude of this popish atrocity.
Furthermore, Foxe reports that Thomas Cranmer’s troubles also originated in his distaste for the mass, and he was executed at about the same time as Ridley and Latimer. According to Foxe, Cranmer authored a bill expressing his disdain for the mass, and it was that document that attracted the attention of his Roman Catholic adversaries (373). Hence is evidenced the importance of the mass, that great symbol of popery, as a matter of factional quarreling, for Foxe at least seems to emphasize it a good deal. In his narrative of Cranmer’s near recantation, Cranmer even begins reciting the Credo of the mass, only to turn away and affirm his protestant faith (384-385). This dramatic device powerfully conveys the strong protestant revulsion toward the Roman Catholic ritual, and it in a sense tries to convey a sense of futility for the mass’ reinstatement under Mary. Well reflected here is the rising sentiment in reformation England for “purging the liturgy of a long list of ‘popish’ elements,” a sentiment that would be soon be represented by the Puritans (Tracy 201-202). Foxe once again uses the information he has to turn his historical interpretation to favor his position, exemplifying the historical interpretations of his people at his time.
Foxe’s Book of Martyrs is a very thorough and detailed source pertaining to the reformation in England, but its style and purpose raise questions of its accuracy and significance. Though every detail of the narratives may not be true, and certainly many are not, this does not at all diminish the historical worth of the book, only somewhat its usefulness as a plain history. Though its general depiction of actual events is trustworthy, at least in terms of objective, verifiable details, much of the narrative detail is not; however, this is not at all a cause for dismissing the Book of Martyrs as an important historical source. It may be a history, but that does not at all prevent it from historical examination beyond the plain history contained therein. Reading into the narrative detail, whether or not it is historically accurate, shows with perfect clarity the issues important to Foxe, and by extension, the issues important to a great many Protestants across England at the time. The histories of these martyrs speak far beyond the stories themselves, providing ample insights into the thoughts and reflections of the contemporaries of the reformation, from those in authority to those readers who simply felt the book’s influence. It is then, not so important for its history, but for its prominent place in the history of history. After all, how better can the people of this past be understood than to determine how they understood the past before themselves?
Bibliography
Foxe, John. W. Grinton Barry ed. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Spire, Grand Rapids, MI: 1998.
Tracy, James. Europe’s Reformations 1450-1650: Doctrine, Politics, and Community. 2nd ed. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland: 2006.
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